Footnotes

1 Department of Political Science, Univ. of Missouri - Kansas City, Kansas City MO 64110, (816) 235-2792, < mirkinh@umkc.edu >

2 Between 1991 and 1994 The American Political Science Review, The Journal of Politics, Polity, The Western Political Quarterly (now Political Research Quarterly), The Political Science Quarterly and The Journal of Policy Analysis and Management have had only a few articles on gender and none on sex or sexuality and politics. Political Theory and Social Research have each published one article on sex and politics. [``An Ethos of Lesbian and Gay Existence'' by Mark BLASIUS in Political Theory, Vol. 20 No. 4 (November 1992) and ``Sexual Balkanization: Gender and Sexuality as the New Ethnicities'' by Michael KIMMEL, Social Research, Vol. 60 No. 3 (Fall 1993).] Law journals occasionally publish articles on harassment or on anti-gay rights amendments or on issues of privacy and sex. There has been no discussion of sex in the major Comparative and American Government texts.

3 James Davison HUNTER does a good job of examining the issues in an American cultural context. Culture Wars: The Struggle to Define America (New York: Basic Books, 1991).

For good (though controversial) discussions of the shifting feminist attitudes towards sex see Rene DENFELD, The New Victorians: A Young Woman's Challenge to the Old Feminist Order (New York: Warner Books, 1995) and Lynne SEGAL, Straight Sex: Rethinking the Politics of Pleasure (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1994).

Social class has been a continuing issue in feminist thought. The early movement was seen by many as part of a middle class attack on poor and immigrant families - middle class feminists basically thought that middle class women ought to stay home to take care of families, but lower class women ought to work. [Stephanie COONTZ, The Way We Never Were: American Families and the Nostalgia Trip (New York: Basic Books, 1992) p. 132]. See also Sue-Ellen CASE's ``Towards a Butch-Femme Aesthetic'' in The Lesbian and Gay Studies Reader, Henry ABELOVE, Michele Aina BARALE and David HALPERIN, eds. (New York: Routledge, 1993), and Madeline DAVIS and Elizabeth Lapovesky KENNEDY, ``Oral History and the Study of Sexuality in the Lesbian Community: Buffalo, New York, 1940-1960'' in Hidden From History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past, Martin DUBERMAN, Martha VICINUS and George CHAUNCEY, JR., eds. (New York: Penguin, 1989).

4 See William RUBENSTEIN, ed., Lesbians, Gay Men and the Law (New York: The New Press, 1993). See also the series Law and Sexuality: A Review of Lesbian and Gay Legal Issues (Tulane University Law School. First issue 1991) See also Janet HALLEY's interesting article ``The Construction of Heterosexuality,'' Fear of a Queer Planet: Queer Politics and Social Theory, ed. Michael WARNER (Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1993), pp. 82-102.

One of the best discussion of sexual policy issues is Steven SEIDMAN, Embattled Eros: Sexual Politics and Ethics in Contemporary America (New York: Routledge, 1992). Also important are David F. GREENBERG, The Construction of Homosexuality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), John D'EMILIO, Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities: The Making of a Homosexual Minority in the United States (Chicago, the University of Chicago Press, 1983) and David EVANS, Sexual Citizenship: The Material Construction of Sexualities (New York, Routledge, 1993).

5 James D. STEAKLEY, ``Iconography of a Scandal; Political Cartoons and the Eulenburg Affair in Wilhelmin Germany,'' Hidden From History, p. 253. The creeping feminization of the army, and social emasculation were central concerns of the Wilhelmin conservatives. Aristocratic homosexuality, including homosexual liaisons with lower orders, was looked down upon by a middle class ``which supplanted the aristocratic focus on blood with the bourgeois focus on sex... The German bourgeoisie had touted its moral superiority to the frivolity and cavalier licentiousness of the aristocracy beginning in the eighteenth century, and during the nineteenth it extended its condemnation to the moral turpitude of the proletariat.'' See also Stephanie COONTZ, The Way We Never Were: American Families and the Nostalgia Trip, pp. 271 & 107-111. She argues that the upper classes have traditionally been seen as effeminate, and many in the middle class thought that the U.S. lost China and East Europe because the State Department and government were dominated by an effeminate east coast educational/social elite. Like the German bourgeoisie the American middle class blamed lower class and immigrant sexual immorality for all social problems, thus letting itself off the hook.

David F. GREENBERG, The Construction of Homosexuality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988) argues that the bourgeois viewed sex that didn't result in the production of children as profligate and a symbol of the idle rich. Opposition to homosexuality and inter-generational sex was part of a broader middle class morality which ``became increasingly forceful in its opposition to a life-style of luxury and excess'' among the aristocracy. (p. 280) According to GREENBERG the energies that drove the campaign against sodomy were those of class hatred. (pp. 298 and 295.)

6 Carroll SMITH-ROSENBERG, ``Discourses of Sexuality and subjectivity: The New Woman, 1870-1936,'' in Hidden from History, pp. 275, 265 and 277. As the ``new woman'' emerged educators and physicians began an attack on woman's education, warning that the educated woman's brain would be overstimulated, and that education would favor the woman's mind over her ovaries and upset her delicate physiological balance. ``She would become morbidly introspective. Neurasthenia, hysteria, insanity would follow.'' Her ovaries would atrophy and cancer would ensue. (p. 268.)

7 These comments have broad support among scholars in the area. Generally, see GREENBERG, chapters 2-4, Randolph TRUMBACH, ``The Birth of the Queen: Sodomy and the Emergence of Gender Equality in Modern Culture,'' pp. 129-140, Paul Gordon SCHALOW, ``Male Love in Early Modern Japan: A literary Depiction of the 'Youth','' pp. 118-128, and Arend H. HUUSSEN, JR., ``Sodomy in the Dutch Republic During the Eighteenth Century,'' pp. 141-149 in Hidden From History. See also Ana Maria ALONSO and Maria Teresa KORECK, ``Silences: `Hispanics,' AIDS, and Sexual Practices,'' pp. 110-126 in The Lesbian and Gay Studies Reader. See also pp. 77-92 in Loving Boys, Vol. 1. See also the exchange of letters between Dr. KINSEY and Mr. ``X'' reprinted in Martin DUBERMAN, ed., About Time: Exploring the Gay Past (New York: Meridian, 1991), pp. 194-215. See also Eva C. KEULS, The Reign of the Phallus: Sexual Politics in Ancient Athens (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), Chapters 11 and 12. RUGGIERO, in The Boundaries of Eros says that sex with boys was very common in 14th and 15th century Venice. pp. 136-137.

8 ``The new focus on the sex act as the culmination of intimacy undermined an earlier tolerance for a continuum of sensual and erotic relations. It is not that homosexuality was acceptable before; but now a wider range of behavior opened a person up to being branded as a homosexual. The passionate female bonds ... were stigmatized and labeled perverse. The romantic friendships that had existed among unmarried men in the nineteenth century were no longer compatible with heterosexual identity; old frontier habits of sharing beds or 'rolling up together around campfires to keep each other warm' were ruled out of bounds.'' COONTZ, The Way We Never Were, p. 195.

Katie ROPHIE's controversial ``Date Rape's Other Victim'' in The New York Times Magazine of June 13, 1993 objects to the extension of the concepts of rape and harassment to cover a broad range of behavior. See also Julia CREET, ``Daughter of the Movement: The Psychodynamics of Lesbian S/M Fantasy'' in Differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies, Vol. 3, No. 2 (Summer, 1991), pp. 135-159, and Pat CALIFIA's introduction to her book of women's s/m pornography, Macho Sluts (Boston: Alyson, 1988).

9 There are some patterns. Variants of the feminist movements and the lesbian/gay liberation movements arose in western industrialized countries within the same time period. Feminist movements probably started when technology made physical strength less of a differential than it had been in previous societies. Gay/Lesbian liberation movements gained power as countries became more urbanized and a concentration of gays & lesbians developed in the cities. The nascent pedophile movement is largely centered on the Internet and in newsgroups. Since there are few open pedophiles in any area, these have substituted for the gay bar as a meeting place and organizing center. It is hard to estimate the size of the movement since people keep unpopular sexual orientations secret, and since definitions vary widely. A pedophile home page on the Internet gets over 200,000 calls a month - but of course users of the Internet are a small proportion of the population. On the other hand, these can be repeat calls from the same people or simply calls from the curious.

10 Some of the most interesting work has been done by Ronald INGLEHART. He uses international survey research to study the political culture of western industrialized nations, and argues that Postmaterialist values are supported by the general tendencies of industrial societies. (Ronald INGLEHART, Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society. Princeton University Press, Princeton: 1990.) See MUCHEMBLED's Popular Culture and Elite Culture in France for a portrait of a society going towards sexual repression.

11 Gale RUBIN, ``Thinking Sex,'' in The Lesbian and Gay Studies Reader, p. 23. She argues that ``Popular culture is permeated with ideas that erotic variety is dangerous, unhealthy, depraved and a menace to everything from small children to national security. Popular sexual ideology is a noxious system made up of ideas of sexual sin, concepts of psychological inferiority, anti-communism, mob hysteria, accusations of witchcraft and xenophobia. The mass media nourish these attitudes with relentless propaganda...'' (pp. 12-13.)

12 John D'EMILIO and Estelle FREEDMAN, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America, (New York: Harper and Row, 1988), pp. 208-209.

13 Intimate Matters, Pp. 143, 153, 203.

14 John D'EMILIO,Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities: The Making of a Homosexual Minority in the United States (Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1983), pp. 19- 20.

15 KINSEY was strongly attacked because he naturalized homosexuality. See a good discussion of the impact of his ideas in Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities, chapter 2 and in Martin DUBERMAN, ed., About Time: Exploring the Gay Past (New York: Meridian, 1991), pp. 369-376. See also David HALBERSTAM, The Fifties (New York: Villard Books, 1993), Chapter 20. One of the major objections to federal funding for the University of Chicago sex survey was the fear that it would naturalize deviance.

16 The ability of most homosexuals to pass produced a great deal of anxiety. Life said that ``Often the only signs are a very subtle tendency to over-meticulous grooming, plus the failure to cast the ordinary man's admiring glance at every pretty girl who walks by.''

17 EDELMAN, ``Tearooms and Sympathy, or, The Epistemology of the Water Closet'' in The Lesbian and Gay Studies Reader, p. 559. See also COONTZ, The Way We Never Were, which argues that a normal family and vigilant mother became the front line of defense against treason. p. 33.

18 A famous fictional portrayal of the role of psychology in the early feminist debates is ``The Yellow Wallpaper'' by Charlotte GILMAN (1892).

There has been a persistent debate on the ideological role psychology plays, and social theorists like SZASZ, ILLICH, LAING and FOUCAULT argue that what are called mental illness are ``merely socially devalued behaviors,'' and that the concept is a myth to disguise moral conflict, to label and control deviant groups and force them to accept the constraints of society.

19 See especially the work of Evelyn HOOKER. She changed the field of gay studies by using a sample of gays drawn from the general population rather than using only people in therapy or in prison. Though previous studies had shown a high degree of mental problems in gay men, her studies did not. See ``The Adjustment of the Male Overt Homosexual,'' Journal of Projective Techniques, Vol. 21 (1957), pp. 18-31. See also the interview with Evelyn HOOKER, ``Facts That Liberated the Gay Community,'' Psychology Today, December 1975. A brief discussion of Hooker is in Ronald BAYER, Homosexuality and American Psychiatry: The Politics of Diagnosis (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987), Chapter 2. See generally this book and The Selling of DSM: The Rhetoric of Science in Psychiatry (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1992) for a discussion of the relationship between psychiatry and homosexuality.

20 In retrospect it is apparent that the seeds of the gay/lesbian movement were planted at this time, though there was certainly no ``gay pride'' in the 1950s.

Most homosexuals believed that they were sick, and simply argued for tolerance. There were few gay or lesbian organizations or magazines. One started in 1953, Mattachine in 1956, and The Ladder was first published in 1957. Visa Versa (considered the first lesbian magazine in America, consisted of about 20 carbon copies of a newsletter, with a hand-to-hand circulation of a few hundred) started in 1947. The Ladder often contained, without negative comment, the opinions of prominent psychologists who claimed lesbians were sick. The Stonewall Rebellion, which created the modern gay and lesbian political movement, was in 1969. The European gay and lesbian groups emerge afterwards.

21 D'EMILIO, Sexual Politics, p. 9.

22 Walter Jenkins, President Johnson's chief of staff, was arrested for homosexual activity when he was caught by police who were observing activity in public toilet stalls. There was little outrage about the invasion of privacy. The NY Times observed that 'sexual perversion,' like alcoholism and drug abuse, 'is increasingly understood as an emotional illness.'' EDELMAN, ``Tearooms and Sympathy'' in The Lesbian and Gay Studies Reader, pp. 562 and 554. Jenkins' career was destroyed, though his ``mistake'' was attributed to overwork. He was thought of as a good man who snapped. See also COONTZ, The Way We Never Were, p. 33.

23 See John D'EMILIO's ``Capitalism and Gay Identity,'' The Lesbian and Gay Studies Reader, pp. 467-473. It is interesting that gays, who had been tolerated earlier, were so persecuted in the 1950's. There are various theories to explain both the persecution and the eventual emergence of a strong community. D'EMILIO argues that the emergence is largely traceable to the growth of cities in post W.W.II America, and to the growth of capitalism which weakened the need for the traditional family and allowed individuals to live on their own within communities in a relatively anonymous city. (Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities). But see also GREENBERG, who argues that the rise of capitalism, with its glorification of competition between men, gave rise to homophobia.

24 A good review of the evolving and changing Court standards on the First Amendment Rights of homosexuals is Paul SIEGEL, ``Lesbian and Gay Rights as a Free Speech Issue: A Review of Relevant Case Law'' in The Journal of Homosexuality, Vol. 21, Nos. 1 & 2 (1992), pp. 203-259.

25 See INGLEHART, Culture Shift, Chapter 6.

26 It is sometimes argued that drugs are treated in the same way, but drugs are considered harmful for adults, while sex is considered an enjoyable activity. Though children are not necessarily passive receivers of behavior, they are normally socialized and not asked to ``consent.'' The higher standard is mainly raised in the sexual area - but once the standard is raised it is almost always said that children cannot give informed consent in this area. Paul OKAMI and Ami GOLDBERG discuss the linguistic and conceptual ambiguities involved in discussing pedophilia in the first 9 pages of their article ``Personality Correlates of Pedophilia: Are they Reliable Indicators?'' in The Journal of Sex Research, Vol. 29, No. 3 (August 1992), pp. 297-328.

27 See p. 214 & Chapter 7 in D'EMILIO and FREEDMAN's Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America.

28 There are good reviews of the arguments and the literature in David T. EVANS, Sexual Citizenship: The Material Construction of Sexualities (London: Routledge, 1993), especially in chapter 8; and in GREENBERG, The Construction of Homosexuality, especially in chapters 8 and 9. See also Homosexuality and American Psychiatry and The Selling of DSM.

29 MICHAEL, GAGNON, LAUMANN and KOLATA, Sex in America. The argument is stated in chapter 1, but essentially the whole book is a documentation of it.

30 An OCLC library search found the NAMBLA Bulletin only in the Library of Congress, the University of Illinois, Michigan State and the Rochester Public Library. (OCLC is the catalog libraries use to locate books for interlibrary loans.) NAMBLA said that the Bulletin was also received by the University of Michigan library, and the Kinsey Institute at the University of Indiana. An OCLC library search did not turn up any libraries that carried Paidika: The Journal of Paedophilia (published in English in Amsterdam. It is a scholarly journal with an impressive editorial board). Most, but not all, library catalogs are in the OCLC database. However it is possible that it is carried in some non-indexed libraries or special collections.

31 Theo SANDFORT, in his study of the sexual experiences of children, found the degree of consent to be the most important factor correlating with future good and bad effects of the experience. Males and females also reacted differently: for males, youthful sexual experiences had a slightly positive effect on their later sex lives, while for women it had more mixed results. The variables were the degree of consent, the age of the partner and the relationship of the partner to the youth or child. See ``The Sexual Experiences of Children,'' Paidika: The Journal of Paedophilia (Winter 1993: Vol. 3, Number 1), pp. 21-56 and pp. 59-74 in the Winter 1994 issue. (Vol. 3, Number 2) SANDFORT also has a good discussion of the methodological problems involved in research in this area and cites other studies.

32 Loving Boys, p. 94. See also article on child prostitution, ``Home Truths,'' by Maggie BLACK in The New Internationalist, February 1994. Almost every statistic in this area is contested. Some say 10% of children are sexually abused, others say that 100% of children are abused. Mass media usually use exaggerated figures and vague terms. A collection of divergent articles is Child Abuse: Opposing Viewpoints, Katie de KOSTER, ed. (San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1994). Paul OKAMI, in ``Personality Correlates of Pedophilia: Are They Reliable Indicators?,'' The Journal of Sex Research, Vol. 29, No. 3 (August 1992), pp. 297-328 gives a good review of the literature in the area. See also his ``Sociopolitical Biases in the Contemporary Scientific Literature on Adult Human Sexual Behavior with Children and Adolescents'' in J. FEIERMAN, ed. Pedophilia: Biosocial Dimensions (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1990). Other articles in this book are also good.

33 The cases were well publicized. STURGES recounts the story in the May 1995 edition of Camera and Darkroom: The Magazine for Creative Photographers, pp. 22-30. See also the afterword to Radiant Identities: Photographs by Jock Sturgess (New York: Aperture, 1994). See also the articles in Aperture, Number 195: The Body in Question (1990), esp. pp. 42-56.

34 The case involved Stephen Knox and created a great deal of controversy within the Clinton administration. At first the Justice Department argued that the Court should overturn the ruling since the law required that child pornography must include ``a visible depiction of the genitals'' and must depict a child ``lasciviously engaging in sexual conduct.''

Videotapes seized from Knox's apartment showed teenage girls wearing bathing suits, leotards or panties and spreading their legs. The camera often zoomed in on the the girls' genital areas. Knox is the first person to be found guilty for possessing pictures of children who were not nude. He was sentenced to 5 years. Knox's attorney said that the videotapes had amateur models in poses ``no different from what one would find in fashion magazines or see on television [or] in gymnastic meets.'' The government argued that the videos ``deliberately draw attention to the genitals of young girls in unnatural and sexually provocative ways.''

35 Friedan thought of the lesbian movement as the ``purple plague.'' Gay leaders routinely denounce NAMBLA and try and disassociate themselves with the group since they feel that charges of child abuse threaten the new legitimacy of Gay groups.

For a discussion of the American Gay movement and pedophilia see ``Man/Boy Love and the American Gay Movement'' by David THORSTAD and ``The Study of Intergenerational Intimacy in North America: Beyond Politics and Pedophilia'' by Gerald JONES. Both articles are in the Journal of Homosexuality's special editions on ``Male Intergenerational Intimacy: Historical, Socio-Psychological, and Legal Perspectives,'' Vol. 20, Nos. 1 & 2 (1990). See Paidika's Issue 8: Special Women's Issue (Vol. 2, number 4, issue 8) for a discussions of female intergenerational sex and the feminist movement.

36 See Pat CALIFIA's articles ``The Age of Consent: The great Kiddy-Porn Panic of '77,'' ''The Aftermath of the Great Kiddy-Porn Panic'' and ``Feminism, Pedophilia and Children's Rights.'' All are collected in Pat CALIFIA, Public Sex: The Culture of Radical Sex (Pittsburgh and San Francisco: Cleis Press, 1994). See also Rene DENFELD, The New Victorians, esp. Part I.

37 The politics is interesting. The Gay Agenda, an extensively used video prepared to help fight city gay/lesbian rights ordinances, attempts to forge an alliance with blacks. It opens with Martin Luther King's ``I have a Dream'' speech and then goes on to accuse gays and lesbians of attempting to steal the civil rights theme. Its tone is populist, emphasizing the wealth and power of the gay community. The alliance between fundamentalists and blacks was largely responsible for the defeat of the multi-cultural approach in the NYC public schools.

38 Catharine MACKINNON, Only Words (1993), Towards a Feminist Theory of the State (1989) and Feminism Unmodified: Discourses on Life and the Law (1987). All three books were published by Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA. There have been important disagreements about pornography and the s/m experience. Some good short discussions of the issue are in Steven SEIDMAN, ``Identity and Politics in a 'Postmodern' Gay Culture,'' in Fear of a Queer Planet: Queer Politics and Social Theory (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993), Michael WARNER, ed. See especially pp. 122-127. See also Steven SEIDMAN's Embattled Eros: Sexual Politics and Ethics in Contemporary America (New York: Routledge, 1992) for a more extended analysis.