- "Behavior" is defined as “a posture or movement
produced by the contraction of voluntary (striated) muscles."
From the point of view of ethology, behavior is classified as being
intentional or expressive.
Intentional behavior produces functional outcomes, such as
walking, running, or throwing. Expressive behavior, often called
"affect," signals mood to a con-specific (member of the
same species) and may be self-perceived as feelings (see Zivin,
1985).
Expressive behaviors can be performed with or without
deliberate, cognitive intent or self-reported awareness. Examples of
expressive behaviors include smiling, frowning, and flirting.
- “Stimulus filter" is an ethological construct that
refers to the receptive component of the innate releasing mechanism.
After passing through the
stimulus filter, a specific stimulus may release a specific
behavioral
response in the form of a fixed-action pattern (see Lorenz, 1981).
- The term "adolescent" is defined in this and
other chapters in this volume as "an individual from the time
at which secondary sexual characteristics begin to develop to
the time at which the development of these characteristics is
completed."
- "Phylogeny" means "the evolutionary history
of the species" (see Medicus and Hopf, this volume).
- "Ontogeny" means "the developmental history
of the individual" (see Zivin, this volume).
- The noun "appetence" derives from the adjective
"appetitive" and is
used in ethology to mean "a natural appetite" (see
Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1975; Lorenz, 1981). It follows, therefore, that
“initial-stimulus appetence" is a
property of the perceiver of the initial stimulus, i.e., of the
individual’s
nervous system. "Appetitive" also is used to describe the
specific searching
behavior that leads to consummatory behavior.
- “Stimulus discriminative ability," which is
precisely defined later in
this section in the subsection titled "Stimulus Discriminative
Ability," is a
property of the nervous system of the perceiving individual.
"Discriminable" is a property of a stimulus.
"Degree of stimulus discrimination" is a state that
results from the interaction between the nervous system’s
discriminative ability and the discriminability of the stimulus.
- The cumbersome term "sexual-arousal-associated-with
stimulus" is necessary because it is not known whether an
initial stimulus evokes sexual arousal without prior exposure to it
or whether the initial stimulus is conditioned into that status by
being present during spontaneous or
other-than-initial-stimulus-evoked sexual arousal, as in the sexual
arousal
that occurs during REM sleep or during mechanical self-masturbation.
- [L(atin): nubilis, from nubere; to veil oneself, to
marry] marriageable: said of women, with reference to their age or
physical development. (Webster's Unabridged Dictionary [2nd ed.].
New York: Ottenheimer Publishers, Inc., 1988.)
- It is proposed that a trait called "stimulus discriminative
ability“ would be closely related to the reciprocal of Clonninger’s
personality trait "novelty seeking“ (Clonninger, 1987). In
Clonninger’s scheme, individuals who are high in "novelty
seeking" would be low in "stimulus discriminative
ability," and the reason they seek novelty would be their
inability to attend to detail and, therefore, their propensity to
experience the resultant early stimulus habituation. It is not known
whether the trait "stimulus discriminative ability" is
restricted to sexually relevant stimuli or generalizes to all
stimuli. Clonninger’s "novelty seeking" trait is not
restricted to sexual stimuli.
- The difference between the secondary-stimulus appetence for
sexually
conditioned attributes in the love map and the secondary-stimulus
appetence for sexually conditioned attributes not in the love map is
that the former attributes are not contingent upon some schedule of
positive reinforcement for continued appetence and the latter are.
- "Paraphilic" is the adjectival form of the noun
"paraphilia." Money defines "paraphilia" as
"a condition occurring in men and women of being compulsively
responsive to and obligatively dependent upon an unusual and
personally or socially unacceptable stimulus, perceived or in the
imagery of fantasy, for optimal initiation and maintenance of eroto-sexual
arousal and the facilitation or attainment of orgasm [from Greek, para-
+ -philia].
Paraphilic imagery may be replayed in fantasy during solo
masturbation or
intercourse with a partner.
In legal terminology, a paraphilia is a perversion or deviancy; and
in the vernacular it is kinky or bizarre sex" (Money, 1986, P-
267)
- The qualifying term "near" is necessary because, if a stimulus
or an attribute were exactly optimally-discriminated-for-fitness, it
would lie in the exact center of the normal distribution, and its
potency value would be zero. Many zeros added together can never
equal more than zero.
- Because of biological variability and the propensity to stabilize
means through balanced polymorphic extremes, there is no reason to
assume that all individuals in a population will have a potentially
procreative love map. Such individuals with non-procreative love
maps may reflect the effect of natural, sexual, and kin selection
operating on other individuals or on non-love-map-related traits in
the population in which they reside, rather than these selective
forces acting on their love map directly, as in the spandrels of San
Marco (see Gould and Lewontin, 1979).
- ”Inclusive fitness" is "the successful transfer
of one’s genes to succeeding generations, including genes that
have been transferred by a relative’s genitals."
- "Kin selection" is "the nepotistic
favoritism shown to relatives that facilitates one’s inclusive
fitness."
- A similar socio-biological explanation has been offered for
homosexuality (see Wilson, 1978). Robert Trivers is usually credited
with having devised the idea.
- An "open genetic program" is one in which the
propensity to learn a general type of behavioral modification is
coded in genetic material but the particular details of the stimulus
are left to chance and individual experience
(see Lorenz, 1981).
- Some anthropologists prefer to define "incest" more
broadly as sexual behavior between any culturally disallowed
individuals.
- "Parker and Parker (1986) found that the crucial variable for
the lack of erotic interest was not biological fatherhood per se but
rather association during a critical period in childhood.
Stepfathers who raised children from infancy were no more likely to
be sexually involved with them as children or adolescents than were
natural fathers. In contrast, natural fathers who were absent during
infancy and childhood had as high a risk of sexual involvement with
these children and adolescents upon returning to the home as did
newly arrived stepfathers.
- “Functional proximity" is the concept used to
describe two behaviors that can easily be executed simultaneously or
in rapid alternation (see Lorenz, 1981).
- Multimale species are those species in which the social
group to which an individual belongs during activity or during sleep
contains more than one adult male.
- It is suggested that some paraphilias are, in part, the result of
the enormously more complex inanimate and contextual socio-ecological
niche in which the love map is acquired in modern industrialized
societies as
compared to the environment of hunters and gatherers.
- The shape of the nubile female is essentially the juxtaposition of
a few curves. The neuro-ethology of the essential elements of the
stimuli is revealed in reductionist art, e.g., Picasso. Other, more
detailed elements of the stimuli are revealed by less reductionist
artists, such as Vargas.
- A distinction must be made between "function" and
"adaptive function." The former concept encompasses the
latter, which has a very specific biological implication (see
Dienske, this volume).
- It is interesting to speculate that a male child’s mother would
have the shape of a nubile female but the role of "more
dominant than self." The degree to which the male child’s
brain has been masculinized and defeminized in utero is believed to
influence the degree to which shape (stored on the basis of
perceived structure) or role (stored on the basis of non-structurally
perceived and processed properties) predominates.
The brain of heterosexual male masochists is less masculinized than
defeminized in the two-dimensional model to be developed.
(See the subsection titled "The Two-Dimensional
Mechanisms," which is found later in this section in the
greater subsection titled "Proximate Mechanisms Underlying
Specific Age and Sexual Orientations in Human Males: The
Two-Dimensional Model.")
- Compared to adult male heterosexual masochists, within the context
of the two-dimensional model, the brain of adult male homosexual
masochists is believed to be relatively less defeminized but equally
unmasculinized.
(See the subsection titled "The Two-Dimensional
Mechanisms," which is found later in this section in the
greater subsection titled "Proximate Mechanisms Underlying
Specific Age and Sexual Orientations in Human Males: The Two-Dimensional
Model.")
Being less defeminized would make attributes coded and stored on the
basis of perceived structure less sexually alluring than attributes
coded and stored on the basis of perceived and possessed role, with
the exception of the one
structurally perceived attribute with intrinsic and primary sexual
gratification, theirs and others’ penis.
- Mount-receiving behavior is mainly attributable to remaining feminized
(with accompanying lordosis) rather than to being unmasculinized.
This assignment is most compatible with the available data and with
the arrangement of individuals with differing sexual orientations in
the
two-dimensional model in Figures 1.9, 1.10, and 1.11. The assignment
also
is compatible with Pillard and Weinrich (1987).
- For simplicity and conceptual convenience, the category
"bisexual" was not used, and "transsexual,"
which is usually defined on the basis of G-I/R, is being defined on
the basis of age and sexual orientations.
- There are social/political lobbies in both the United States and
Europe that strive to lower the age of consent. However, the
lobbyists appear to be mainly adult male androphilic pedo- and
ephebophiles, rather than the children and adolescents or their
advocates (see Okami, this volume).
- Sexual exploration among same-age and same-sex children and
adolescents is often considered a developmental stage in which pedo-
and ephebophiles as well as homosexual individuals become "fixated."
The two-dimensional biosocial model suggests that age and sexual
orientations are largely determined by differing degrees of pre- and
peri-natal hormonalization with some contribution of life experience
during the formation of the love map.
- The prevalence rate of paraphilias in the general population is
unknown. Estimates of relative prevalence can be obtained from the
percent of all individuals seeking treatment who have a particular
paraphilia (Abel et al., 1987).
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