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Sex and Society;
Sex Atlas, 1983, The Continuum Publishing Company, New York
Human beings are "social animals", and their habits, desires, hopes, fears, and beliefs are shaped by the various societies into which they are born. This is also true of their sexual attitudes and behaviors. People are born with a certain potential for sexual expression, but this potential can be realized in a great variety of ways. Indeed, in sexually repressive societies it may well remain partially or completely unrealized.
The sexual behavior of men and women reflects not only their personal tastes, but, to a large extent, also the basic values of the society or social group to which they belong.
No matter how much they may differ as individuals, their moral sense is always shaped by the underlying assumptions of their whole culture.
Human beings are "social animals", and their habits, desires, hopes, fears, and beliefs are shaped by the various societies into which they are born. This is also true of their sexual attitudes and behaviors. People are born with a certain potential for sexual expression, but this potential can be realized in a great variety of ways. Indeed, in sexually repressive societies it may well remain partially or completely unrealized.
The sexual behavior of men and women reflects not only their personal tastes, but, to a large extent, also the basic values of the society or social group to which they belong.
No matter how much they may differ as individuals, their moral sense is always shaped by the underlying assumptions of their whole culture.
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Short Explanation, short comment, questions
About:
Pornography Use and Sexual Aggression: The Impact of Frequency and Type of Pornography Use on Recidivism Among Sexual Offenders
Drew A. Kingston, Paul Fedoroff, Philip Firestone, Susan Curry, and John M. Bradford. AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR, Volume 34, pages 1–11 (2008).
It is a quite difficult article, at least for the average student and Ipce reader.
Thus: Explanation of the used statistics, some comments and some questions.
About:
Pornography Use and Sexual Aggression: The Impact of Frequency and Type of Pornography Use on Recidivism Among Sexual Offenders
Drew A. Kingston, Paul Fedoroff, Philip Firestone, Susan Curry, and John M. Bradford. AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR, Volume 34, pages 1–11 (2008).
It is a quite difficult article, at least for the average student and Ipce reader.
Thus: Explanation of the used statistics, some comments and some questions.
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Social Interactions Among Paedophiles
[...] The purpose of this study is to explore the range and nature of social interactions among individuals who experience a sustained and compelling attraction towards young adolescents or prepubescent children of either sex. Such an attraction, of course, is prohibited and the target of extensive social controls, legal sanctions and therapeutic efforts. Given the widespread hostility they elicit, paedophiles are generally viewed not only as social outcasts but also as social isolates. This may explain the lack of research on the social networks of paedophiles. [...]
My substantive goal, here, is to analyze the variety of conditions that would allow paedophiles to overcome their social isolation, seek each other out and become, as a result, embedded in a deviant quasi-community or social movement. [....]
None of the [interviewed] subjects were known as having had to use force in seeking prohibited sexual intimacy, and none showed in our conversations the slightest indication of any sadistic or psychopathic predispositions. In short, they could not be meaningfully categorized as "sexual predators".
[... ... ... ... ...]
To the extent that age of consent offenders interact among themselves, they may ... define for themselves a new set of norms about the "appropriate" rules of courtship and about the appropriate settings for engaging in erotic interaction with juveniles ("a structuring effect"). [...]
As they attempt to actualize their attraction, the personal costs they impose on themselves and on their personal entourage (including the juveniles themselves), may trigger a self-reflection process that will commit them into abstinence.
[...] The purpose of this study is to explore the range and nature of social interactions among individuals who experience a sustained and compelling attraction towards young adolescents or prepubescent children of either sex. Such an attraction, of course, is prohibited and the target of extensive social controls, legal sanctions and therapeutic efforts. Given the widespread hostility they elicit, paedophiles are generally viewed not only as social outcasts but also as social isolates. This may explain the lack of research on the social networks of paedophiles. [...]
My substantive goal, here, is to analyze the variety of conditions that would allow paedophiles to overcome their social isolation, seek each other out and become, as a result, embedded in a deviant quasi-community or social movement. [....]
None of the [interviewed] subjects were known as having had to use force in seeking prohibited sexual intimacy, and none showed in our conversations the slightest indication of any sadistic or psychopathic predispositions. In short, they could not be meaningfully categorized as "sexual predators".
[... ... ... ... ...]
To the extent that age of consent offenders interact among themselves, they may ... define for themselves a new set of norms about the "appropriate" rules of courtship and about the appropriate settings for engaging in erotic interaction with juveniles ("a structuring effect"). [...]
As they attempt to actualize their attraction, the personal costs they impose on themselves and on their personal entourage (including the juveniles themselves), may trigger a self-reflection process that will commit them into abstinence.
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Sexual abuse of children: MEPs want to criminalise "grooming" on the Internet
The European Parliament calls for a stop to sexual exploitation of children and child pornography.
The European Parliament calls for a stop to sexual exploitation of children and child pornography.
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Stopping sexual abuse of Russian kids;
The Japan Times,
Sep 11 2007
One of the regrettable consequences of the uneven economic expansion that Russia has experienced in recent times has been the increase in child abuse, particularly child prostitution.
This has been fueled by the significant influx of foreigners coming to Russia for business transactions. Besides the moral and ethical implications, the impact that sexual exploitation has on children's health and future development demands urgent attention. It is a problem that shows no signs of abating.
Sexual abuse of children can take several forms ... ...
One of the regrettable consequences of the uneven economic expansion that Russia has experienced in recent times has been the increase in child abuse, particularly child prostitution.
This has been fueled by the significant influx of foreigners coming to Russia for business transactions. Besides the moral and ethical implications, the impact that sexual exploitation has on children's health and future development demands urgent attention. It is a problem that shows no signs of abating.
Sexual abuse of children can take several forms ... ...
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Supporting Boys or Girls When the Line Isn’t Clear;
New York Times,
Dec 02 2006
Until recently, many children who did not conform to gender norms in their clothing or behavior and identified intensely with the opposite sex were steered to psychoanalysis or behavior modification.
But as advocates gain ground for what they call gender-identity rights, evidenced most recently by New York City’s decision to let people alter the sex listed on their birth certificates, a major change is taking place among schools and families. Children as young as 5 who display predispositions to dress like the opposite sex are being supported by a growing number of young parents, educators and mental health professionals.
Until recently, many children who did not conform to gender norms in their clothing or behavior and identified intensely with the opposite sex were steered to psychoanalysis or behavior modification.
But as advocates gain ground for what they call gender-identity rights, evidenced most recently by New York City’s decision to let people alter the sex listed on their birth certificates, a major change is taking place among schools and families. Children as young as 5 who display predispositions to dress like the opposite sex are being supported by a growing number of young parents, educators and mental health professionals.
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Self-identifications, sexual development and well-being in minor-attracted people: an exploratory study
Most research on sexual attraction to minor children and adolescents has viewed this phenomenon as a pathology, and has used clinical and forensic study populations. This study seeks to conceptualize minor attraction as a sexual orientation, and uses a sample of minor- attracted people recruited from the internet (N = 160). Participants’ sexual identities, sexual attractions, disclosures, and well-being are investigated.
Results indicate that minor-attracted people have varied experiences, but common themes that emerged in these areas are discussed. Regarding well-being, minor-attracted people in general had higher loneliness and lower self- esteem than the general public. But positive disclosure experiences and having some level of attraction towards adults were related to lower loneliness, and more accepting attitudes towards sex between adults and children were found to be related to higher self-esteem. In general, findings supported the conceptualization of minor attraction as a sexual orientation. [... ... ...]
Most research on sexual attraction to minor children and adolescents has viewed this phenomenon as a pathology, and has used clinical and forensic study populations. This study seeks to conceptualize minor attraction as a sexual orientation, and uses a sample of minor- attracted people recruited from the internet (N = 160). Participants’ sexual identities, sexual attractions, disclosures, and well-being are investigated.
Results indicate that minor-attracted people have varied experiences, but common themes that emerged in these areas are discussed. Regarding well-being, minor-attracted people in general had higher loneliness and lower self- esteem than the general public. But positive disclosure experiences and having some level of attraction towards adults were related to lower loneliness, and more accepting attitudes towards sex between adults and children were found to be related to higher self-esteem. In general, findings supported the conceptualization of minor attraction as a sexual orientation. [... ... ...]
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Sexuality, Youth Protection & Human Rights
The study examines the extent to which common sexual offences concerning minors do protect this proposed comprehensive right to sexual self-determination. The analysis is based upon the findings of natural and social science as well as an extensive and detailed international survey of national legal provisions.
The study examines the extent to which common sexual offences concerning minors do protect this proposed comprehensive right to sexual self-determination. The analysis is based upon the findings of natural and social science as well as an extensive and detailed international survey of national legal provisions.
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The Sambia Tribe (of Papua New Guinea)
Description of the initiation rites for boys in the Samba tribe of Papua New Guinea. The child becomes a man, warrior and spouse.
Description of the initiation rites for boys in the Samba tribe of Papua New Guinea. The child becomes a man, warrior and spouse.
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Scary statistics?,
Jun 13 2006
It would seem that acceptance of pedophilia in Canada is already far more mainstream than most Canadians would have thought possible.
If 81% of Canadians think pedophilia is immoral, then 19% of Canadians either refused to answer or believe that pedophilia is, in fact, a moral behaviour.
The Leger poll also offers up a statistic that suggests Canada's tolerance of pedophilia will slowly grow with time, noting that older Canadians are far more likely to see the practice as immoral versus those in the 18- to 24-year-old crowd, where only 74% agreed lusting after pre-pubescent kids is wrong.
It would seem that acceptance of pedophilia in Canada is already far more mainstream than most Canadians would have thought possible.
If 81% of Canadians think pedophilia is immoral, then 19% of Canadians either refused to answer or believe that pedophilia is, in fact, a moral behaviour.
The Leger poll also offers up a statistic that suggests Canada's tolerance of pedophilia will slowly grow with time, noting that older Canadians are far more likely to see the practice as immoral versus those in the 18- to 24-year-old crowd, where only 74% agreed lusting after pre-pubescent kids is wrong.
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Schuster, meta-analysis - some links to the references
Some Literature … from Schulte, Meta-analysis 2024, as far as easily to find on Ipce’s websites.
Some Literature … from Schulte, Meta-analysis 2024, as far as easily to find on Ipce’s websites.
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The Science Of Sexual Orientation,
Feb 11 2009
There are few issues as hotly contested — and as poorly understood — as the question of what makes a person gay or straight. It's not only a political, social, and religious question but also a scientific question, one that might someday have an actual, provable answer.
The handful of scientists who work in this under-funded and politically charged field will tell you: That answer is a long way off. But as Lesley Stahl reports, their efforts are already yielding tantalizing clues. One focus of their research is twins.
There are few issues as hotly contested — and as poorly understood — as the question of what makes a person gay or straight. It's not only a political, social, and religious question but also a scientific question, one that might someday have an actual, provable answer.
The handful of scientists who work in this under-funded and politically charged field will tell you: That answer is a long way off. But as Lesley Stahl reports, their efforts are already yielding tantalizing clues. One focus of their research is twins.
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Scorched Earth,
Feb 27 2012
The 21st century American view of sex is warped beyond that of any other historical culture. The official and popular paradigm appears to be based on the belief that sex is such a horrible, monstrous abomination that the mere mention of it to an adult can constitute “violence”, that participating in it for taboo reasons can be a “crime”, and that if a person is exposed to sexual contact, conversation or imagery (...) even one minute before midnight on her 18th birthday she will be instantly and irreversibly ruined beyond any hope of redemption.
[...]
It’s time to stop being afraid of the activity to which every single one of us owes his existence, and to stop fighting a war whose casualties are far greater than any the “threat” itself has ever produced.
The 21st century American view of sex is warped beyond that of any other historical culture. The official and popular paradigm appears to be based on the belief that sex is such a horrible, monstrous abomination that the mere mention of it to an adult can constitute “violence”, that participating in it for taboo reasons can be a “crime”, and that if a person is exposed to sexual contact, conversation or imagery (...) even one minute before midnight on her 18th birthday she will be instantly and irreversibly ruined beyond any hope of redemption.
[...]
It’s time to stop being afraid of the activity to which every single one of us owes his existence, and to stop fighting a war whose casualties are far greater than any the “threat” itself has ever produced.
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A Secular Trend toward Earlier Male Sexual Maturity
Evidence from Shifting Ages of Male Young Adult Mortality
Improved nutrition and disease environments have generated substantial increases in human body size over recent centuries. A decline in the age of menarche, the measuring point for the onset of female sexual maturity, has also been well documented.
A similar shift to earlier ages of sexual maturity for males has been hypothesized, but evidence of a long-term trend has been elusive. The secular trend toward younger menarche can be documented because individual health records recording first menstruation can be compared over time.
For males, however, no such comparable medical evidence exists.
The research reported here takes an indirect approach to measuring males' age of sexual maturity.
Evidence from Shifting Ages of Male Young Adult Mortality
Improved nutrition and disease environments have generated substantial increases in human body size over recent centuries. A decline in the age of menarche, the measuring point for the onset of female sexual maturity, has also been well documented.
A similar shift to earlier ages of sexual maturity for males has been hypothesized, but evidence of a long-term trend has been elusive. The secular trend toward younger menarche can be documented because individual health records recording first menstruation can be compared over time.
For males, however, no such comparable medical evidence exists.
The research reported here takes an indirect approach to measuring males' age of sexual maturity.
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See No Evil,
Nov 26 2011
This obsession with the insubstantial and/or inconsequential has created a bizarre inversion of priorities in many Western countries; major issues which are largely hidden from public view, or which affect a comparatively small number of people, are virtually ignored in favor of absurdly expensive, intrusive and punitive campaigns against “crimes” which actually injure nobody.
One example of this is the crusade against “child porn”; mere possession of an image is deemed a “crime” equal to using actual children to create that image, and artificial images such as sketches or written descriptions are in many cases considered equivalent to the real thing; this is tantamount to banning fictional depictions of murder.
The excuse used is that artificial images “create a demand” for porn, but this is mere sophistry; human beings are not computers to be programmed, and as any marketing expert will tell you it’s impossible to “create” a demand for something without somehow tying it to a real demand such as the desire for food, sex, status, health, wealth, etc.
In other words, one can’t “market” child porn to anyone who isn’t already sexually attracted to children ...
The current hysteria over “bullying” is another example; what person has
never been bullied or observed another being bullied? Such behavior is merely
the human equivalent of animals posturing and snarling to establish a pecking
order; it cannot be eliminated without lobotomizing the entire population at
about the age of four. ...
This obsession with the insubstantial and/or inconsequential has created a bizarre inversion of priorities in many Western countries; major issues which are largely hidden from public view, or which affect a comparatively small number of people, are virtually ignored in favor of absurdly expensive, intrusive and punitive campaigns against “crimes” which actually injure nobody.
One example of this is the crusade against “child porn”; mere possession of an image is deemed a “crime” equal to using actual children to create that image, and artificial images such as sketches or written descriptions are in many cases considered equivalent to the real thing; this is tantamount to banning fictional depictions of murder.
The excuse used is that artificial images “create a demand” for porn, but this is mere sophistry; human beings are not computers to be programmed, and as any marketing expert will tell you it’s impossible to “create” a demand for something without somehow tying it to a real demand such as the desire for food, sex, status, health, wealth, etc.
In other words, one can’t “market” child porn to anyone who isn’t already sexually attracted to children ...
The current hysteria over “bullying” is another example; what person has
never been bullied or observed another being bullied? Such behavior is merely
the human equivalent of animals posturing and snarling to establish a pecking
order; it cannot be eliminated without lobotomizing the entire population at
about the age of four. ...
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Sex Is Evil: Film at 11.,
May 06 2011
The newest entry in the “Sex is dirty, please watch our show while we prove it” sweepstakes is this clip from ABC News.
It’s an “exclusive” interview with Christine Hubbs, a 42-year-old woman who was recently convicted of having sex with her daughter’s 14-year-old boyfriend and his best friend.
She’s now known as “the Hummer Mom” because she drove her little lovers around in her Hummer, creating the world’s most perfect sexual reference. The interview is very odd and very disturbing. I felt like I desperately needed a shower after watching it — and not because of Hubbs’ crimes.
The newest entry in the “Sex is dirty, please watch our show while we prove it” sweepstakes is this clip from ABC News.
It’s an “exclusive” interview with Christine Hubbs, a 42-year-old woman who was recently convicted of having sex with her daughter’s 14-year-old boyfriend and his best friend.
She’s now known as “the Hummer Mom” because she drove her little lovers around in her Hummer, creating the world’s most perfect sexual reference. The interview is very odd and very disturbing. I felt like I desperately needed a shower after watching it — and not because of Hubbs’ crimes.
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Sex Offender Myths: The Foundation for Sex Offender Laws,
Mar 01 2011
Nine myths about 'pedophiles' and 'sex offenders' ... often seen as synonyms ...
"The most misused word is pedophile. The psychiatric definition denotes strong sexual arousal and urges for pre-pubescent children; the legal usage is applied to all offenders with a minor victim, which is misleading since not all “child molesters” are “pedophiles”."
Nine myths about 'pedophiles' and 'sex offenders' ... often seen as synonyms ...
"The most misused word is pedophile. The psychiatric definition denotes strong sexual arousal and urges for pre-pubescent children; the legal usage is applied to all offenders with a minor victim, which is misleading since not all “child molesters” are “pedophiles”."
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Sex Offender Residency Restrictions,
Jan 01 2009
Sex offenders, as a group, incite the public's fear and hatred, and politicians seeking to curry electorate favor often support increasingly harsh sanctions against these "political pariahs of our day." Most recently, in an attempt to keep communities safe, at least twenty two states and hundreds of local municipalities have placed severe restrictions on where sex offenders may live after being released from prison. These restrictions typically exclude sex offenders from living within 1000 to 2500 feet of schools, parks, day care centers, and other areas where children congregate.
However, research indicates that these fear-driven laws are ill-advised policy choices based on faulty reasoning. They aggravate recidivism risk factors, and hence may actually make communities less safe.
Sex offenders, as a group, incite the public's fear and hatred, and politicians seeking to curry electorate favor often support increasingly harsh sanctions against these "political pariahs of our day." Most recently, in an attempt to keep communities safe, at least twenty two states and hundreds of local municipalities have placed severe restrictions on where sex offenders may live after being released from prison. These restrictions typically exclude sex offenders from living within 1000 to 2500 feet of schools, parks, day care centers, and other areas where children congregate.
However, research indicates that these fear-driven laws are ill-advised policy choices based on faulty reasoning. They aggravate recidivism risk factors, and hence may actually make communities less safe.
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Sex Offenders: The Modern Day Leper,
Mar 27 2009
I want to tell you about Scott, a friend of mine who lives in the upstate of South Carolina. After a year and a half of being a modern day leper, he finally agreed to my interview. No, Scott does not have Hansen's disease. However, he has been shunned and forced to live on the edges of society, similar to the lepers of Biblical times.
I want to tell you about Scott, a friend of mine who lives in the upstate of South Carolina. After a year and a half of being a modern day leper, he finally agreed to my interview. No, Scott does not have Hansen's disease. However, he has been shunned and forced to live on the edges of society, similar to the lepers of Biblical times.
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Sexual Taboos and Moral Restraints,
May 26 1976
"What one finds is that religion no longer has much impact on the moral struggle, with one important exception: when religious faith and moral standards are experienced as commitments to valued and supportive persons and are embodied in relationships with those persons. They may be relatives, friends, or members of a church which one experiences as a family. [...]
Restraint comes not through the authority of institutions or the power of ideas, but through the personal influence of people he loves and trusts."
"What one finds is that religion no longer has much impact on the moral struggle, with one important exception: when religious faith and moral standards are experienced as commitments to valued and supportive persons and are embodied in relationships with those persons. They may be relatives, friends, or members of a church which one experiences as a family. [...]
Restraint comes not through the authority of institutions or the power of ideas, but through the personal influence of people he loves and trusts."
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Sexual Victimology vs. Philosophy of Science
Sexual victimology is a blend of social science, criminology, and victimization-based feminism that advocates social and legal reform. As with other forms of victimology, sexual victimology holds as a basic tenet that victimization, which is defined in increasingly broad terms, typically produces lasting psychological damage; this view invited the medicalization of victimization, which prompted expansion of therapeutic services that embraced victimological assumptions as a basis for treatment.
However, nobody thinks of whether sexual victimology can be considered as an empirical science at all. Noone has ever evaluated sexual victimology with relation to philosophy of science.
Occam Razor Principle [...] Popper's Falsifiability Principle [...]
Is sexual victimology scientific? [...]
The statement: Adult-child sex causes psychological maladjustment, is not falsifiable, so sexual victimology is a pseudoscience.
Sexual victimology is a blend of social science, criminology, and victimization-based feminism that advocates social and legal reform. As with other forms of victimology, sexual victimology holds as a basic tenet that victimization, which is defined in increasingly broad terms, typically produces lasting psychological damage; this view invited the medicalization of victimization, which prompted expansion of therapeutic services that embraced victimological assumptions as a basis for treatment.
However, nobody thinks of whether sexual victimology can be considered as an empirical science at all. Noone has ever evaluated sexual victimology with relation to philosophy of science.
Occam Razor Principle [...] Popper's Falsifiability Principle [...]
Is sexual victimology scientific? [...]
The statement: Adult-child sex causes psychological maladjustment, is not falsifiable, so sexual victimology is a pseudoscience.
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Sexual violence against men and boys (in war-zones)
It is well known that armed conflict and sexual violence against women and girls often go hand in hand. What is less widely recognised is that armed conflict and its aftermath also bring sexual danger for men and boys. The great reluctance of many men and boys to report sexual violence makes it very difficult to accurately assess its scope. The limited statistics that exist almost certainly vastly under-represent the number of male victims. Nevertheless, in the last decade, sexualised violence against men and boys – including rape, sexual torture, mutilation of the genitals, sexual humiliation, sexual enslavement, forced incest and forced rape – has been reported in 25 armed conflicts across the world. If one expands this tally to include cases of sexual exploitation of boys displaced by violent conflict, the list encompasses the majority of the 59 armed conflicts identified in the recent Human Security Report.1
It is well known that armed conflict and sexual violence against women and girls often go hand in hand. What is less widely recognised is that armed conflict and its aftermath also bring sexual danger for men and boys. The great reluctance of many men and boys to report sexual violence makes it very difficult to accurately assess its scope. The limited statistics that exist almost certainly vastly under-represent the number of male victims. Nevertheless, in the last decade, sexualised violence against men and boys – including rape, sexual torture, mutilation of the genitals, sexual humiliation, sexual enslavement, forced incest and forced rape – has been reported in 25 armed conflicts across the world. If one expands this tally to include cases of sexual exploitation of boys displaced by violent conflict, the list encompasses the majority of the 59 armed conflicts identified in the recent Human Security Report.1
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Shota: Japanese 'boylove' vs. Western subculture,
Mar 14 2006
I was poking around on Wiki and thought it was really interesting how different the entries were for Shotacon or Shota in the Japanese Wikipedia and the English Wiki.
Most people in Western countries who know the word know it as it applies to explicit manga focusing on boys, which by now is far from uncommon even on the English-speaking Internet. But what most don't know is that Shota is also used in today's Japan to describe sexual attraction to boys in general. Not only that, but it is probably the more embraced term nowadays than shounen-ai (which literally means "boy-love").
I was poking around on Wiki and thought it was really interesting how different the entries were for Shotacon or Shota in the Japanese Wikipedia and the English Wiki.
Most people in Western countries who know the word know it as it applies to explicit manga focusing on boys, which by now is far from uncommon even on the English-speaking Internet. But what most don't know is that Shota is also used in today's Japan to describe sexual attraction to boys in general. Not only that, but it is probably the more embraced term nowadays than shounen-ai (which literally means "boy-love").
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Social Stigma
Social stigma is the extreme disapproval of (or discontent with) a person or group on socially characteristic grounds that are perceived, and serve to distinguish them, from other members of a society. Stigma may then be affixed to such a person, by the greater society, who differs from their cultural norms.
Social stigma can result from the perception of mental illness, physical disabilities, diseases such as leprosy (see leprosy stigma), illegitimacy, sexual orientation, gender identity, skin tone, education, nationality, ethnicity, ideology, religion (or lack of religion) or criminality. Attributes associated with social stigma often vary depending on the geopolitical and corresponding sociopolitical contexts employed by society, in different parts of the world.
According to Goffman there are three forms of social stigma:
Overt or external deformations, such as scars, physical manifestations of anorexia nervosa, leprosy (leprosy stigma), or of a physical disability or social disability, such as obesity.
Deviations in personal traits, including mental illness, drug addiction, alcoholism, and criminal background are stigmatized in this way.
"Tribal stigmas" are traits, imagined or real, of ethnic group, nationality, or of religion that is deemed to be a deviation from the prevailing normative ethnicity, nationality or religion.
Social stigma is the extreme disapproval of (or discontent with) a person or group on socially characteristic grounds that are perceived, and serve to distinguish them, from other members of a society. Stigma may then be affixed to such a person, by the greater society, who differs from their cultural norms.
Social stigma can result from the perception of mental illness, physical disabilities, diseases such as leprosy (see leprosy stigma), illegitimacy, sexual orientation, gender identity, skin tone, education, nationality, ethnicity, ideology, religion (or lack of religion) or criminality. Attributes associated with social stigma often vary depending on the geopolitical and corresponding sociopolitical contexts employed by society, in different parts of the world.
According to Goffman there are three forms of social stigma:
Overt or external deformations, such as scars, physical manifestations of anorexia nervosa, leprosy (leprosy stigma), or of a physical disability or social disability, such as obesity.
Deviations in personal traits, including mental illness, drug addiction, alcoholism, and criminal background are stigmatized in this way.
"Tribal stigmas" are traits, imagined or real, of ethnic group, nationality, or of religion that is deemed to be a deviation from the prevailing normative ethnicity, nationality or religion.
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Socrates & I : Reflections On Childhood And Philosophy,
Mar 26 2004
The article explores the childhood of Socrates, born and raised in the ancient Greek culture. It may explain some specific characteristics of Socrates.
The author, born in 1941, reflects her own childhood, and ends with some questions.
The article explores the childhood of Socrates, born and raised in the ancient Greek culture. It may explain some specific characteristics of Socrates.
The author, born in 1941, reflects her own childhood, and ends with some questions.